Human Cell Strains in Vaccine Development. Identifying Pathogens and Transmission Vectors. Malaria and Malaria Vaccine Candidates. Passive Immunization.
The Future of Immunization. Vaccines for Pandemic Threats. Viruses and Evolution. History and Society [ ]. Cultural Perspectives on Vaccination. Disease Eradication. Ethical Issues and Vaccines.
History of Anti-vaccination Movements. Influenza Pandemics. The Development of the Immunization Schedule. The History of the Lyme Disease Vaccine. The Scientific Method in Vaccine History. Military and Vaccine History. Vaccination Exemptions. Vaccine Injury Compensation Programs. Vaccine Testing and Vulnerable Human Subjects. Vaccine Information [ ].
Different Types of Vaccines. Government Regulation. Vaccine Development, Testing, and Regulation. Vaccine Side Effects and Adverse Events. Vaccines for Adults. Vaccines for Teenagers. Vaccine-Preventable Diseases [ ]. Chickenpox Varicella. Haemophilus influenzae type b Hib. Hepatitis A and Hepatitis B. History of Polio Poliomyelitis.
Human Papillomavirus Infection. Meningococcal Disease. Pertussis Whooping Cough. Pneumococcal Disease. Shingles Herpes Zoster. Typhoid Fever. Vaccines for Sexually Transmitted Diseases. While scientists had tried to make whooping cough vaccines since , the vaccines available were not very effective; no one was sure how much or which strain of the bacteria was best to use, and it was difficult to grow in the lab. It would take two former school teachers, well versed in dealing with terrified children and making budgets stretch, to take the first consequential steps toward defeating the disease.
Scientific funding was rarely given before World War II , but when the pair discovered that First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt was visiting Grand Rapids, they invited her on a laboratory tour. Roosevelt not only accepted, but actively learned about their work for hours; afterward she helped the scientists secure rare federal funding.
In the s, science research was, to put it mildly, low tech compared with today. Now, if scientists need to grow a microbe, they can buy an instant powder made of potato starch or agar to use as a medium. Grace Eldering, third from right, and Loney Clinton Gordon, far left, who worked with Pearl Kendrick and helped pioneer a combined vaccine for diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus.
Many male scientists focused on other areas, which inadvertently opened the door for dedicated women in the field. Kendrick and Eldering were not typical research biologists, however; they were extremely adept public organizers. They persuaded nurses and doctors to volunteer as lab workers, and persuaded residents to participate in a large-scale trial.
By the time Kendrick and Eldering were ready to begin the full field trial of their vaccine in , parents had already volunteered their children in droves. The results were impressive; in the first run of the Grand Rapids trials, only three vaccinated children out of 1, in the study developed whooping cough, versus 63 non-vaccinated children. Local doctors, schools and health departments began using the whooping cough vaccine, which was distributed and used across Michigan and by the American Academy of Pediatrics.
Kendrick and Eldering continued working with the Grand Rapids community through the s, hiring and working alongside more brilliant woman scientists in the increasingly female public health field.
Following publication of research on the Bordet-Gengou technique, several scientists began development of a pertussis vaccine using whole cell killed pertussis. The first crude whole cell pertussis vaccine was licensed in 2 but was not routinely used until after , when it was combined with diphtheria and tetanus vaccines to become the DPT vaccine. A published study 7 reporting serious side effects following DPT vaccination received widespread publicity in Great Britain and DPT vaccination rates drop from 80 to 30 percent.
The vaccine was reinstated for use but recommended for children ages 2 years and older only. Since , Japan had used the DTaP vaccine with far fewer serious reactions and no reported whooping cough outbreaks.
It was the highly reactive whole cell DPT vaccine that caused many children to suffer permanent brain damage or death, which prompted vaccine makers in the United States to push Congress into giving pharmaceutical companies a partial product liability shield in Between and , following the passage of the National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act of , DPT vaccine injured children were receiving awards through an administrative procedure.
Department of Justice actively worked to substantially weaken the compensation and safety provisions of the National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act of As a result of this change, attorneys representing children suffering these classic DPT vaccine reaction symptoms followed by permanent injury or death would have to prove causation in the U. Court of Claims whenever the Secretary of Health and the Justice Department refused to award compensation.
In February , the U. Supreme Court chose to inaccurately interpret the National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act of , and removed the right of vaccine injured Americans to sue a vaccine maker, even when evidence existed that injuries could have been prevented if a pharmaceutical company had chosen to make a safer vaccine. The February Supreme Court decision to remove this provision completely shielded pharmaceutical companies from all liability for harm caused by any vaccine.
The Supreme Court decision was a result of a lawsuit filed by the attorneys and parents of Hannah Bruesewitz, a young woman who suffered from seizures within hours of her six month whole cell DPT vaccination that resulted in lifelong developmental delays.
In , one month prior to the hearing of her case in the federal compensation program, the injuries that Hannah suffered were removed from the vaccine injury table and Hannah was denied compensation by an administrative judge.
Only Justices Sotomayor and Ginsburg stood up for the American public by dissenting. Although the FDA approved the first acellular DTaP vaccines for use in the United States in , 27 it took until for this less reactive vaccine to be granted approval for use in infants and children for all five of the recommended doses of pertussis, diphtheria, and tetanus vaccination.
In , the FDA approved two additional pertussis-containing vaccines, Tdap, targeting adolescents and adults. Boostrix, initially approved for persons ages 10 through 18 years of age, and Adacel, approved for persons ages 11 through 64 years of age. This recommendation was made in response to high rates of pertussis outbreaks in adolescents as a result of waning vaccine-induced pertussis immunity.
This recommendation was made without any scientific evidence to support the theory that vaccinating adults with Tdap would reduce the risk of pertussis in infants.
0コメント